"Forget not Mee & My Garden. . . ," Peter Collinson wrote his Maryland friend George Robins in 1721. "If you have any Shells, Curious Stones, or any other Naturall Curiosity Remember Mee. I want one of your Humming Birds which you may send dry'd in its Feathers, and any Curious Insect." This theme echoed through Collinson's letters for the rest of his life, along with thanks for rarities received, introductions, cultivation instructions, encouragements, importunings, queries. Armstrong describes Collinson's correspondence as, "vigorous, brisk, and emphatic." His letters talk mainly of plants, but there are also antiquities, birds, butterflies, British imperial interests, sheep management in Spain, electricity, weather, fossils, insects, earthquakes, vine culture, Colonial policy, tithes, wars, terrapins, "an Infalible Remedy for the bite of a Mad Dog," red Indians, astronomy, the making of salt, cheese fairs, the price of wheat, the power of snakes to charm, the Spanish threat to Florida, geology, French expansion, "Hints . . . to Incorporate the Germans more with the [Pennsylvania] English. . . ," the history of rice growing, premiums to encourage the production of silk, whether swallows migrate or winter-over under water, "Old Hock" as a remedy for gout, thundergusts, magnetism, Bezoar stones, and now and then a Quakerly comment. This selection of 187 letters is enhanced with over 120 illustrations (portraits and botanical drawings among them), some by Mark Catesby, Georg Dionysius Ehret, William Bartram, many in color. The edition contains notes and commentary for most letters.

AS AN ORGANIC WHOLE, the present collection of documents-gathered together from a variety of original sources-tells a fascinating story about the trade relationship between the English East India Company and the powerful Armenian merchant community of New Julfa that lasted over one hundred years (17th and early 18th centuries). Multifarious and complex, this relationship revolved around the Company's continual efforts to break into the Armenian-held silk and cloth markets. Perhaps more than any other single event, this trade relationship epitomizes the economic climate of the period, an age of competitive partnership. With the publication of this volume, Professor Baladouni and Mrs. Makepeace place for the first time at the disposal of historians a substantive body of documents that tell how this intricate Anglo-Armenian trade relationship started and evolved. Beyond that, these documents also reveal to the astute historian the human experiences that lie behind the participants' actions. The extensive topical indexes provided in the volume will be of great assistance to researchers. Finally, in the Introduction, Professor Baladouni addresses the question "What was the key to the Armenian merchants' success during the pre-modern period?" and submits a hypothesis for consideration. He proposes that their "fabulous success" may be attributed to the rare atmosphere of trust that prevailed among the Armenian merchant community which, in turn, led to two significant benefits: (1) organizational cost savings; and (2) organizational innovations. A glossary of terms and several indexes complete the study.

When Benjamin Franklin adopted John Bartram's 1739 idea of bringing together the "virtuosi" of the colonies to promote inquiries into "natural secrets, arts and syances," the result was, in 1743, the founding of the American Philosophical Society. Whitfield J. Bell, Jr. records the early years of the Society through sketches of its first members, who were elected between 1743 and 1769. Volume 1 includes biographies of some of the Society's best known members such as Franklin, David Rittenhouse, John Bartram, Benjamin Rush, John Dickinson, Thomas Hopkinson and many lesser known merchants, artisans, farmers, physicians, lawyers and clergymen with familiar surnames such as Biddle, Colden, and Morris. A history of this earliest society and its offshoots before 1769, the Young Junto and the American Society for Promoting and Propagating Useful Knowledge, are also included. These sketches, written over several decades, represent in Whitfield J. Bell's words, "the first systematic attempt to collect and preserve data on the lives of [the Society's first] members" and add much to our knowledge of the history and culture of eighteenth-century America.

John Haygarth, MD, FRS (1740–1827) hailed from an obscure valley in the Yorkshire dales in the north west of England. Educated at Sedbergh School, Cambridge, and Edinburgh, he became a physician in Chester in 1767. There he introduced separate wards in the Chester Infirmary where patients with fever could be isolated and cared for. It was the stimulus for the development of the fever hospitals of nineteenth-century England. Haygarth moved to Bath in 1798, where he continued to write on medical matters. He also played a major role in the foundation of the Bath Provident Institution for Savings, a model for the savings-bank movement in England. John Haygarth died in 1827 at Swainswick near Bath and is buried in the graveyard there.

".if you have a year or two to apply yourself to all that is necessary, I would hope that we might see, by your efforts, if there are animals on the moon." (René Descartes, 1629)

With this alluring suggestion, René Descartes invited a young instrument maker to join him on an unprecedented and secret project that promised to revolutionize early modern astronomy. Descartes believed he had conceived a new kind of telescopic lens, ground to the shape of a hyperbola, that would surpass anything ever to come from the hands of the glass-working craftsmen of the era. This study traces the inception, development, and finally the collapse of this ambitious enterprise, and examines Descartes' lens in the broader context of seventeenth-century optics, instrumentation, and mechanical craftsmanship. The history of the device sheds light on the history of telescopes in the period, on the relationship between instrument makers and mathematical adepts, on the mechanical philosophy and its connection to machine, and on the thought and work of Descartes himself.

Papers given at a conference on Scientific Exploration in North America to 1930 with topics including Cartography, Oceanic Exploration, Art, Anthropology, Lewis and Clark, and the West.

Thomas Thistlewood is known for his daily records of life on a slave plantation in eighteenth-century Jamaica. Thistlewood's previously unexamined weather journal is shown here to be the most important written record from the Earth's tropical regions available. His observation methods are superior to most of his contemporaries and provide a high-quality daily record of more than 35 years. Comparison of his records with modern weather records indicates that Thistlewood's Jamaica was a much cooler and moister place than in modern times. A 252-year record of tropical storm and hurricane frequency in Jamaica reveals that the late twentieth-century minimum in storm frequency is unprecedented.

THIS VOLUME CONTINUES Marshall Clagett's studies of the various aspects of the science of Ancient Egypt. Like its predecessors, it has two main objectives: first to summarize and analyze the principal features of a nascent and yet important part of that science, namely its mathematics, and second to present in English six of the most important mathematical documents on which the preceding analysis was based. Thus we find treated in the first part of the work Egyptian measurement that lay behind the various calculating procedures, the procedures themselves, and the model problems that were gathered together to aid the calculators in their efforts to complete practical measures. The author includes detailed descriptions of the various kinds of tables that the Egyptians depended upon in their calculations, an important one being the Table of Two that presented the division of 2 by the odd numbers from 3 to 101. This table reveals the nature of Egyptian fractions and their form of notation as the sums of unit fractions, a form leading to the use of a concept very useful for measurement, that of significant fractional approximations achieved by dropping one or more of the lesser fractions at the end of a set of unit fractions. The Table of Two occupies the first section of the most important of all Egyptian mathematical documents, the Rhind Papyrus, the papyrus which stands at the head of the documents in Part II of the volume. Following the series of documents in Part II with their extensive endnotes, the author gives in Part III a bibliography, an Index of Egyptian Terms, and an Index of Proper Names and Subjects. To assist the reader who controls the Egyptian language there is finally an extensive collection of illustrations which includes, together with pertinent diagrams and tables, reproductions of the hieratic texts of the documents with their hieroglyphic transcriptions.

Historians of European music of the early modern period have focused particular attention upon the formal institutions and agents of patronage: ecclesiastical institutions, royal and aristocratic courts, etc. Like their colleagues in sister humanistic disciplines, musicologists are increasingly focusing upon less formal private "institutions" and traditions of patronage: informal academies and societies, the activities of individuals, convivial aristocratic companies. Cultural life in early sixteenth-century Florence was characterized by the practices of a series of vital institutions of this type: the famous group that met in the Rucellai garden, the Medici Sacred Academy, the Companies of the Broncone, Cazzuola, and Diamante. Such informal institutions had considerable virtues as agents of patronage; their less routinized practices freed them to engage in experimentation that the larger and more public and formal institutions were less likely to support, given their regularized practices and well-established traditions. For music historians, the importance of these informal agents of patronage is that they reveal a relationship to the early madrigal: to early madrigal poets and composers, whose professional activities were closely aligned to those of the contemporary informal academies and literary societies. Through reference to sources multidisciplinary in nature, this study reconstructs the memberships, cultural activities, and musical experiences of these informal Florentine institutions and relates them to the emergence of the madrigal, the foremost secular musical genre of early modern Europe.

Anthony M. Cummings received a Ph.D. in Musicology from Princeton University in 1980, where he was a Lecturer in Music. His dissertation was on "A Florentine Sacred Repertory from the Medici Restoration." From 1990–1992 he was a member of the program staff at The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. He has been an Associate Professor of Music in the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Tulane University since 1992. Dr. Cummings currently is Chairman of the Newcomb Department of Music at Tulane. Articles and other publications include "Giulio de' Medici's Music Books" (in Early Music History X, Cambridge University Press, 1991, pages 63–120), The Politicized Muse: Music for Medici Festivals, 1512–1537 (Princeton Essays on the Arts, Princeton University Press, 1992), University Libraries and Scholarly Communication: A Study Prepared for the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (with William G. Bowen, et al., The Haworth Press, 1996), and "Music: Transmission of Music" (in Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, edited by Paul F. Grendler, Charles Scribner's Sons in association with the Renaissance Society of America, 2000.

"The scholarship is sound, well documented, and up to date. One of the strengths of the book is the breadth of its coverage. The material will be of interest to scholars in all areas of Florentine Renaissance studies. The author's comprehensive organization of the material and the conclusions he draws from it, and his ideas about the role of Medici patronage of the early madrigal, are original and important. The book is richly illustrated with both visual materials and musical examples. A wonderful contribution." -Ruth I. DeFord, Ph.D., Professor of Music, Harvard University
Hunter College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York

Copepod crustaceans are the most numerous multicellular animals on earth. They occur in every free-living and parasitic aquatic niche. Copepods have been known since the time of Aristotle, yet there has never been a history of the study of copepods. This volume, the first in a planned three-volume series, reviews the discoveries of copepods to 1832, the year that the two distinct branches, the free-living copepods (long-known as insects) and the parasitic copepods (thought to be molluscs or worms) were finally acknowledged as members of the same Class Crustacea. The narrative includes the biographies of 90 early copepodologists and recounts their most important contributions to science. Portraits are included for two-thirds of the subjects, with considerable new material as well as information and illustrations from obscure sources. Milestones include the first description of copepods (ca. 350 B.C.), the first illustration (1554), the first free-living freshwater copepod (1688), the first explanation of a free-living copepod's metamorphosis (1756), the first permanently named copepod (1758), the first free-living marine copepod (1770), and the first description of a parasitic copepod's metamorphosis (1819). The work ends with a transition to the mid-19th century, previewing numerous personal connections that pointed toward copepodology's Golden Age in the 1890s, to be covered in Volume 2. A final volume will take the history of the study of copepods to ca. 1950.

Up to and including the Age of Discoveries, the wealth of the East was thought in Europe to consist primarily of spices and aromatics. Cloves, nutmeg, mace, and sandalwood all were thought to come from a few small islands in easternmost Indonesia, which no European reached before 1500. Yet supplies of these luxury products were reaching China, India, western Asia, and the Mediterranean lands more than a thousand years earlier. This study of Moluccan spices opens with their natural history and nomenclature, and the discovery of the Islands by Europeans near the opposing (and controversial) limits of Spanish and Portuguese jurisdiction. Robin Donkin traces the expanding interest and long-distance trade in cloves, nutmeg, and sandalwood, first to India and then to the adjacent Arabo-Persian world. The medieval West and China lay on the margins of diffusion, the former in touch with the Levant, the latter with the trading world of South East Asia.

MAN HAS BEEN INTRIGUED by the origin of pearls, sensitive to their beauty, and convinced of their medicinal value for at least five millennia. A mixture of folklore and observation preceded the earliest scientific enquiries. Fishing and trade commenced in southern Asia, between India and Sri Lanka and around the Persian Gulf. In Western and Central Europe, Inner Asia and China, and North America, freshwater pearls were probably known and treasured before those of marine origin. Donkin combines written sources with the results of archaeological and philological research. A refined nomenclature lends support to other evidence pointing to long familiarity, and etymologically related words for 'pearl'-reflecting former trading connections or colonization. Pearls were prominent among the luxury products which, for many centuries, the West associated with the legendary East and South; conversely, the Chinese looked to the West and South. From the opening of the Age of Discoveries and for the next two and a half centuries marine pearls were high among the objectives of expeditions to the eastern and western Tropics. The often remote centers of demand were affluent and culturally advanced societies where dealers and purchasers exercised fine judgment in matters of shape and color and iridescence, as they continue to do today. Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-Fishing, organized both chronologically and by region is called by reviewer, James Parsons, "the crowning achievement of a world-class scholar....The folklore regarding pearls has created an endlessly imaginative literature, here analyzed meticulously." The book is enhanced with over 100 maps and illustrations.

The American Philosophical Society in conjunction with the Independence National Historical Park announces the publication of the first catalog of the portraits in the INHP collection. These portraits, most of which are exhibited in the Second Bank of the United States, consist of 255 works, 109 of them by Charles Willson Peale. Many were first exhibited in Peale's Museum and included likenesses of heroes of the American Revolution and founders of American government, statesmen, jurists, men of science, art and letters. The collection was enhanced by the addition of the works of notable 18th and 19th Anglo-American artists. The book is divided into two major sections—a history of the collection dividing it chapters covering works pre-1950, 1850–1900 and 1900–1951, and a catalog. Each catalog entry is enhanced with either a black and white or four-color reproduction and contains a physical description of the portrait, a brief biography of the subject, the circumstance of the portrait's commission and its provenance. The editor and authors made extensive use of the Peale papers and other special collections in the American Philosophical Society Library archives. This study should be useful for museum staff, historians (of American and Art history), and visitors to Independence Historical National Park.

Timothy Feist offers a study of English almanacs and British stationers. The Stationers' Company exemplified the self-restraint and ideological decorum that could result when public and private interests merged. No single item embodied this cultural alchemy more completely than the English almanac, simultaneously an emblem of bumptious popular culture and the official product of the Company of Stationers. The Stationers' Company possessed a royal monopoly on the entire almanac trade and by the early eighteenth-century almanacs reflected the views not of numerous individual compilers but of a single corporate author. Almanacs were first and foremost a commodity, to be considered as products, before they were considered as literature.

BORN IN SPAIN and longtime resident of Bruges, Juan Luis Vives is one of the keenest, and most neglected, minds of the northern Renaissance. A many-sided intellect and critical observer of the contemporary scene, Vives' contribution includes treatises on metaphysics, psychology, education, rhetoric, logic, religion, and social reform. And it is precisely the central premise of this monograph that what links these diverse works together and turns Vives' literary production into a whole larger than the sum of its parts is the author's single-minded commitment to the Socratic dictum that an unexamined life is not worth living. But because man's Fall caused him to lose his pristine ability to accomplish that task as an individual, he must now do it in the context of a God-mandated, man-created society, whose origins and evolution Vives explains in Stoic terms. Building on a foundation of Socratic/ Aristotelian optimism and Augustinian pessimism, he concludes that social man can indeed reach the bonitas which alone makes beatitude possible. But at a price, for Vives the Skeptic insists that man must forego the use of that ratio speculativa which seduces him into thinking that he can probe into nature's being and understand his own divine nature.

Jean Fernel (1497-1558) was one of the foremost medical writers of his day, ranked by his contemporaries alongside Andreas Vesalius, reformer of anatomical studies, and Paracelsus, radical reformer of theories of disease and treatment. He is arguably the leading expositor of the Galenic system of medicine. He exemplifies in his Physiologia the method and approach of a typical Aristotelian philosopher in the period immediately before the downfall of Renaissance Scholasticism. John Forrester offers the Physiologia here in its entirety and provides, for the first time, a complete English translation of the work.

Chemistry as it is known today is deeply rooted in a variety of thought and action, dating back at least as far as the fifth century B.C. In this book, Joseph S. Fruton weaves together the history of scientific investigation with social, religious, philosophical, and other events and practices that have contributed to the field of modern chemistry. The story begins with the influence of alchemy on early Greek numerology and philosophy, followed by the historical account of chemical composition and phlogiston. The life and work of Antoine Lavoisier receive extensive coverage in Chapter Three, with the remaining six chapters devoted to atoms, equivalents, and elements; radicals and types; valence and molecular structure; stereochemistry and organic synthesis; forces, equilibria, and rates; and electrons, reaction mechanisms, and organic synthesis.

Charles Coulson Gillispie, Dayton-Stockton Professor of History of Science, Emeritus, at Princeton University, has assembled a collection of essay representing an eclectic selection of his writings, spanning more than half a century. Included with these writings are new prefatory editorial comments to many of the essays. With the book's conclusion, Dr. Gillispie sets forth "what the relations of science to other aspects of culture have been across the sweep of modern history." An appendix of listing other titles published by the author is given as well.

For the people of Chuuk and for students of religion and Micronesian culture, this book pulls together and makes available in English the somewhat scattered published accounts (largely in German), along with Goodenough's own (as yet unpublished) information about religious beliefs and ritual practices in pre-Christian Chuuk. The materials are presented in a way that seeks to document and illustrate a particular approach, a functional one, to understanding the kinds of human concerns that give rise to religious behavior. Simply to describe traditional beliefs and rituals without the relevant social background information leaves the reader without any feeling for what were the emotional concerns, engendered by life in Chuukese society, that ritual practices helped people address. Ward Goodenough offers a theoretical introduction, the necessary background information about Chuuk and the ways in which members of Chuukese society experienced themselves and their fellows, the world view and overall set of beliefs providing the intellectual framework within which ritual practices were formulated and understood, and the various bodies of ritual practices. He concludes the book with a summary that pulls together how the rituals described appear to be related to the emotional concerns that growing up and living in Chuuk tended to create.

Friedrich Overbeck’s “Italia and Germania” (1811-1828) is a well-known image in its native Germany, where it is usually seen as an allegory of the perennial longing of German artists and poets for the beauty and harmony of the land “where the lemon tree blooms.” It is not so well known, outside specialist circles, that the earliest sketches for this iconic painting bore the title “Sulamith (the Shulamite of the Song of Solomon) and Maria” and formed part of a series of drawings and texts produced and shared by Overbeck and his close friend Franz Pforr, the young founders of the school of painters generally referred to as “Nazarenes.” Closely linked to the philosopher Friedrich Schlegel and his wife Dorothea, the daughter of the celebrated Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and a convert, along with her husband, to Roman Catholicism, the Nazarenes advocated the renewal of earlier and purer forms of art and religion and looked forward to a condition in which things that had been separated from their original unity—not only art and religion, but word and idea, poetry and philosophy, feminine and masculine, and, not least, Jews and Christians—would be brought together again, as Overbeck said, “in harmony and mutual respect.” The contextualization of Overbeck’s “Italia and Germania” in this essay reveals a painting that is a rich repository of meanings, an emblem not only of the sisterhood of North and South, the early German and early Italian traditions in art, but of the general Romantic longing for reconciliation, reunion, and the overcoming of historical alienation.

Toward the end of February in 1877, a letter from the county council of Telha, a municipio of some six hundred inhabitants located in the Serra da Mattos reported that people were dying from starvation. The previous year's rainy season or "winter" had been sparse, and the harvest, poor. Now, this season's rains still had not appeared. This was the Great Drought—three years of failed rains enshrined in subsequent Brazilian historical memory as the worst drought ever to hit Brazil's northeast. Drought had visited the region throughout its history, with the earliest recorded occurrences dating back to the sixteenth century. Prior to the Great Drought, the last significant drought had taken place in 1844–45. That relatively long interval of good rains made the failure of rains in 1877 even more devastating, for it caught the provinces of the north totally unprepared.

Despite all this official concern, the numerous academic studies, ambitious plans, and publicly funded projects, the specter of periodic droughts producing dislocation and death continues to haunt the region. As Nancy Schepper-Hughes affirms, "if there is one raw and vital nerve among Nordestinos [northeasterners] it is their horror of drought . . . and thirst." Northeasterners see drought as both a cause and symbol of their region's relative underdevelopment, and claim that this reflects a longstanding pattern of government favoritism toward the south. In this view as well, the northeast has been exploited by southern business and financial interests, drained of both its people and capital. Outside the region, the derisive terms "drought industries" and "drought industrialists" express a widely held belief that northeastern politicians have shamelessly exploited drought to provide patronage for their cronies, waxing rich off the misery of the ignorant masses. This supposedly explains the long history of failed attempts to "solve" the drought problem.

Vincent Bourne (1694-1747) was one of the most, if not the most, popular Latin poets of his day. In its depiction of homely urban scenes and in its sensitive portrayal of animal and civic behavior (and the reciprocity between such behavior) his Latin verse appealed to early eighteenth-century and Romantic sensibilities. The present study examines a broad range of that Latin verse in its classical, neo-Latin, and vernacular contexts with particular attention to the theme of identity (and differing forms of identity). It surveys the quest for identity, reciprocal identities, metropolitan identities, the recreation of identity, and assesses ways in which Bourne's fusion of the classical and the Romantic gave him a unique neo-Latin voice which enabled him to stand out from his predecessors and contemporaries. Appended to the study are the texts (with Haan's translations) of the Latin poetry discussed therein.

Estelle Haan (Sheehan) is Professor of Renaissance and Anglo-Latin Literature at Queen's University Belfast. Previous publications with the American Philosophical Society include From Academia to Amicitia: Milton's Latin Writings and the Italian Academies (Transactions volume 88, part 6) and Vergilius Redivivus: Studies in Joseph Addison's Latin Poetry (Transactions volume 95, part 2).

The Academy of Natural Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, John Bartram Association, the Library Company of Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, and the Philadelphia Botanical Club sponsored a three-day symposium in May 1999 to commemorate the three-hundredth anniversary of John Bartram's birth. This collection of essays arises from that symposium. All of the essays contribute to the telling of the story of the multifaceted John Bartram, whose life spanned most of the eighteenth century and who was called "the greatest natural botanist in the world." The work is published in cooperation with the Library Company of Philadelphia and John Bartram Association.

Following in the succession of his 25 predecessors, Leon Abbett twice served as governor of New Jersey in the late nineteenth century. A lifelong Democrat, he was a dynamic and visionary party leader who guided the citizens of New Jersey into a new urban industrial age. While he was a machine politician and party boss, he was also a notable reformer. That was a formidable combination for his time. Grappling with a series of hot political issues and braving the passions and divisions spawned by the Civil War, Abbett was one of the ablest and most intriguing men ever to be governor. Several new ideas were transformed into public policy during his tenure. Both in style and strategy, Abbett represented a sharp break from his predecessors. He was a prime example of a governor who both in crisis and in ordinary times broadened gubernatorial authority. He became both a policy and party leader. In this context, he was an important forerunner to a type of governor that had not yet appeared on the American political stage.

In this comprehensive catalogue of the work of the 15th-century painter and draftsman, Stefano da Verona (1375-ca. 1438), Karet reviews past scholarship and corrects old misunderstandings that produced an inconsistent, heterogeneous and misinformed corpus. Her attributions are based on stylistic arguments, technical analysis, and the relationship of the drawings to a limited number of secure paintings by this important Late Gothic North Italian painter. The restricted but sound body of works Stefano da Verona executed is compiled in rich catalogue entries that include discussions of style, iconography, patronage, paper and sketchbook analysis, important issues of workshop production and of the history of drawings and collectionism. Karet also transcribes and translates 15th-century Italian inscriptions and texts in various dialects found on the drawings. The catalogue includes a group of fully annotated rejected works that touch upon important issues involving drawings by Stefano's contemporaries. The author also reconstructs a sketchbook drafted by Stefano, one of the first artists to preserve his ideas in this way. Karet's Drawings of Stefano da Verona is a significant addition to the history of drawing in the important transitional decades from the Late Gothic to the Renaissance.

The autobiographical memoirs of Zeng Baosun, an extraordinary Chinese woman who was a pioneer in promoting education for girls and Christian values, are expertly translated and adapted by Thomas Kennedy. The commentary recounts Zeng Baosun's life and education, from her studies abroad, to her experiences through two world wars, to her exile in Taiwan. She emphasized the feminist commitment to leadership and improvement in the condition of women, but always within an established social and economic order.

This English translation of Georges Le Rider’s comprehensive study of the coinage and financial policy of Alexander the Great (Alexandre Le Grand: Monnaie, Finances et Politique) brings, for the first time, the magisterial scholarship of one of the world’s greatest living numismatists before an Anglophone public. For more than forty years Le Rider has published fundamental studies on the coinages of the ancient Middle East and eastern Mediterranean world, particularly from the time of Philip II (Alexander’s father), Alexander himself, and the Seleucid empire. The book of 2003 that is now appearing in English represents the culmination of a lifetime of reflection on the coinage of Alexander.

This collection of memoirs by refugees from Nazi Germany is a rich source of autobiographical information on the Nazi era. Housed at Houghton Library of Harvard University, it consists of 263 files containing the memoirs of approximately 230 people who lived in Germany or Austria during the 1930s. The stories of the memoirists encompass an almost bewildering range of human experience. The authors come from Danzig and Berlin, from central Germany and the Southwest, from Munich and from Vienna. They are Jews and Catholics and Protestants, and mixtures of these all-too-neat categories in their origins and marriages. They are peddlers and professors, machinists and lawyers, private housewives and public activists. They are conservatives and liberals and Communists. The strongest common bond was their exile.

FOLLOWING THE DEATH OF ST LOUIS, a new court fashion of ostentatious display was introduced into French stained glass with the advent of Queen Marie de Brabant, who in 1274 became the second wife of St Louis' heir Philippe le hardi. Little stained glass in this new style survives, since the very motifs that made it different-large donor 'portraits,' elaborate heraldry, lavish name-inscriptions-became the most attractive targets of vandalism during the Hundred Years War, the Franco-Burgundian struggles of the fifteenth century, the Huguenot conflict thereafter, and finally the French Revolution. This study reconstructs two ensembles in the new court style, at Mussy-sur-eine in southern Champagne and at the famous medieval hospital of Tonnerre in Burgundy. Both of them can be directly connected with the extraordinary figure of Marguerite de Bourgogne. Burgundian princess, second wife and then widow of Charles d'Anjou, St Louis' brother, and titled the Queen of Sicily, Marguerite was a great peacemaker and one of the most revered agents of Christian charity of the Gothic era. The Mussy windows can be reconstructed almost completely with evidence from the surviving images, archival data, early photographs and drawings, stylistic analysis, and careful identification of the heraldry and inscriptions. One bay was a gift of Gui de Genève, bishop of Langres; another window was donated by the mason Perrenet Barottier (here identified as the designer of Mussy and Tonnerre) and his wife Jacquette; yet another was a memorial to Gui de Mussy, soldier of Charles d'Anjou in Naples and undoubtedly killed in the Sicilian Vespers massacre of 1282. Finally, the Queen contributed the axial clerestory (the Crucifixion), the bay beneath it (the local St Vallier, patron of her parish at her residence in Tonnerre) and probably another window-totally destroyed but probably adorned with crowned images of Marguerite and Charles d'Anjou and their heraldry.

In 1901 Emil von Behring received the first Nobel Prize in medicine for serum therapy against diphtheria, a disease that killed thousands of infants annually. Diphtheria serum was the first major cure of the bacteriological era and its development generated novel procedures for testing, standardizing, and regulating drugs. In the first English-language scientific biography of Behring, Derek S. Linton emphasizes Behring's seminal contributions to the study of infectious diseases, the formation of modern immunology, and innovative research on specific remedies and vaccines against deadly microbial infections. The biography explores Behring's complex relations to the rival bacteriological schools of Robert Koch in Berlin and Louis Pasteur in Paris, and analyzes his collaborations and controversies with leading medical researchers such as Robert Koch, Paul Ehrlich, Elie Metchnikoff, and Rudolf Virchow. The second part of this volume contains translations of thirteen key articles by Behring and his associates on infectious diseases, immunology, drug testing, and therapeutics spanning thirty years of his remarkable scientific career.

“The ‘new military history’ is new in its concern for military history as a part of the whole of history, not isolated from the rest, for the military as a projection of society at large, for the relationships of the soldier and the state, for military institutions and military thought.” So wrote Russell F. Weigley, one of the most accomplished and respected military historians of the latter half of the twentieth century. Beyond Combat includes a brief biography of Dr. Weigley by the editors, an introduction by Dennis F. Showalter, essays by nine of Dr. Weigley’s PhDs, and a select bibliography of his work.

As the essays in this collection make plain, Isaiah Berlin invented neither the term "Counter-Enlightenment" nor the concept. However, more than any other figure since the eighteenth century, Berlin appropriated the term, made it the heart of his own political thought, and imbued his interpretations of particular thinkers with its meanings and significance. His diverse treatment of writers at the margins of the Enlightenment, who themselves reflected upon what they took to be its central currents, were at once historical and philosophical. Berlin sought to show that our patterns of culture, manufactured by ourselves, must be explained differently from the ways in which we seek to fathom laws of nature. Many of the essays in this volume were prepared for the International Seminar in memory of Sir Isaiah Berlin, held at the School of History in Tel Aviv University during the academic year 1999–2000.

A history of the early years of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the life and career of James Bowdoin, the Academy's first president, are given careful consideration by Frank and Fritzie Manuel. The strength of the work rests in a combination of its subject matter and execution. The subject matter is both intrinsically interesting and simultaneously neglected. Neither the accomplishments of Bowdoin nor the contributions of the members of the Academy have been adequately studied, and the Manuel's careful exploration is a valuable addition to our understanding of the founding of the nation. Using primary manuscript sources in the AAAS itself, the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Archives of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and the Huntington Library, the work is, by turns, witty, learned, and often simply fascinating. The Manuels have produced a volume that offers an incomparable account of one of Revolutionary America's most elusive and fascinating figures.

The Comité du Librairie of the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris and its influence on modern scientific refereeing are examined in this 2003 J.F. Lewis Award-winning monograph. James McClellan investigates the development and growth of the Comité du Librairie in the late eighteenth century, and its influence in establishing international norms for processing, modifying, and authorizing books and papers for publication. Pointing out that "historians of the Académie Royale des Science have known about the Comité de Librairie and had logged the existence of its registers, but no one had studied them in detail," he presents a comprehensive and authoritative history of the Comité.

This is a monographic study of the eighteenth-century Italian sculptor. Born in Florence in 1698, Della Valle came to Rome in 1725 upon the death of his uncle and master, Giovanni Saftista Foggini. There he remained until his death in 1768. The phrase "passive tranquillity" refers both to the style of Della Valle's sculpture and the ambiance of eighteenth-century Rome, and, further, serves to distinguish Della Valle from his better known precursors, Gianlorenzo Bernini and Michelangelo. Theirs was a sculpture of the heroic and highly expressive. Della Valle's sculpture represents figures of an introverted, self-effacing, and serene type. In its demonstrations of the ways in which Della Valle's art could have been formed by the institutions and broader cultural currents of eighteenth-century Rome, the text seeks to account for that sense of quiescence and composure common to the arts of settecento Rome. The catalogue raisonné brings together previously unpublished documents and photographs of Della Valle's work and provides evidence for attributions and the circumstances of patronage.

Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (1667–1740) and the Vatican Tomb of Pope Alexander VIII examines the commission of the Vatican tomb of Pope Alexander VIII Ottoboni by his great-nephew Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni. Although neglected for centuries, the Ottoboni monument occupies the most strategic liturgical position in the complex of tombs in the Vatican basilica. It is impressive in scale, and offers a commanding presence on the path from the papal entryway to the apse and main altar, with a majestic papal effigy, a visually compelling narrative relief carving, and symbolically important allegories.

Using unpublished archival documents in the Vatican and Lateran archives, this study discusses in detail the thirty-year campaign for the construction of the tomb and identifies the artists and artisans responsible for the project. The monograph is comprehensive in its stylistic analysis, exploration of iconography, discussion of liturgical practice, and consideration of studio procedures beginning with patron and artist, architect and sculptors, and sculptor and artisans. Also revealed is why the project required three decades to complete.

Edward Olszewski received a Ph.D. in Renaissance-Baroque Art in 1874 from the University of Minnesota. His thesis topic was "Armenini's Treatise on Painting." He also has a Ph.D. in Inorganic Chemistry from the University of Illinois, received in 1964. Dr. Olszewski has worked at the University of South Florida as a Visiting Research Associate Professor, ADM Chemicals as a Research Chemist, and the University of Minnesota as a Teaching Associate. Currently he is a Professor of Art History at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. Additional honors and leadership positions include nomination for the John S. Diekhoff Award for Distinguished Graduate Teaching at Case Western Reserve University in 2002 (he won the award in 1986), Program Coordinator of the Sixteenth Century Studies Conference in 2000, Fellow of Early Modern History, Sixteenth Century Studies Conference, in 1998, and Program Chair of the Midwest Art History Society Annual Meeting in 1996. Dr. Olszewski was President of the Midwest Art History Society from 1981–1984, received a Grant-in-aid from the Butkin Foundation in 1990, was given a travel grant from the American Council of Learned Societies, Seventh International Congress on the Enlightenment (Budapest, Hungary) in 1987, and was named a Delmas Fellow by the Gladys Krieble Delmas Foundation in 1986. Dr. Olszewski has written several books, including Drawings in Midwestern Collections, I: Early Drawings (1996) and Drawings in Midwestern Collections, II: 1500–1600 (2003). He also is the author of The Draftsman's Eye (1981), and Giovanni Battista Armenini: On the True Precepts of the Art of Painting (1977). Articles that Dr. Olszewski has written have appeared in art journals worldwide, including Römischen Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana, Artibus et Historiae, and Cleveland Studies.

"Professor Olszewski has produced a well-written, informative, and important monograph. And, in the process, he has expanded our understanding of contemporary workshop practice and art making in the Rome of the later Baroque period.

There are sections where the author's meticulous care and insightful reconstruction of events gives the reader a sense of "being there" in the day-to-day process of work on the site. These parts make for especially exciting and engaging reading." -- Brian Curran, Department of Art History, Pennsylvania State University

"An absolutely wonderful piece of work." -- Helen North, Centennial Professor of Classics Emerita, Swarthmore College

Winner of the John Frederick Lewis Award for 2004, American Philosophical Society.

This catalogue of the astronomical manuscripts preserved at the Maharaja Man Singh Museum provides a substantial part of the foundation for an extensive and penetrating analysis of the astronomical activities of Sawai Jayasimha Maharaja from 1700 to 1743. Jayasimha collected Sanskrit manuscripts of traditional Indian astronomy, acquired Arabic and Persian manuscripts representative of the Muslim interpretation of Ptolemaic astronomy, built five observatories at which he employed both Hindu and Muslim observers, and produced a set of astronomical tables in Persian based on the Latin tables of Philippe de La Hire.

In 1783, Princess Ekaterina Dashkova was appointed director of Russia's Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences by Catherine the Great. It was just two years after she had met with another fascinating personality of the Enlightenment-Benjamin Franklin, founding president of America's first scientific academy, the American Philosophical Society. This volume, published as a companion to an exhibition of the same title and on the occasion of the Franklin Tercentenary of 2006, highlights Dashkova as an accomplished Enlightenment woman. It explores how she, like Franklin, took up the challenge of living according to the newest ideals of her age. Nominated by Franklin in 1789 to become the first female member of the American Philosophical Society, she in turn made him the first American member of the Russian Academy.

The Curatorial Department of the American Philosophical Society presents a catalogue of the exhibition being held in Philosophical Hall from June 2003 through December 2004. The exhibit focuses on the blending of art and science in the study of natural history in North America. It explores the cultural assumptions that governed the practice of natural history on the North American continent in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Focusing on the study of living things—plants, animals, and indigenous peoples -- it looks at how and why Euro-Americans of the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment periods went about explaining the world the way they did. Exhibit items include historical specimens, manuscript materials, first-edition books, and art work.

Arising in the first decades of the twentieth century, the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements came into existence in Britain in an era of social and political unrest and were initially the center of intense controversy. Through the years, Guiding and Scouting broke down class, race, and gender distinctions and helped youth cope with an emerging mass culture and allowed boys and girls to stretch gender and generational boundaries. Using official documents, logbooks, diaries, and oral histories, Tammy Proctor explores the formation of the Scouts and Guides and their transformation during and after World War I. The interwar period marked a departure for the two organizations as they emerged as large multinational organizations that targeted not only adolescents, but also smaller children and young adults.

George Sarton animated the discipline of history of science in America. This monograph, the first full-length study of Sarton’s life and work, traces his youth and education in Ghent, Belgium, and his stormy marriage to the talented English artist Mabel Elwes. It follows George and Mabel Sarton in their path from idealistic refugees fleeing the invasion of Belgium in 1914 to destitute intellectuals at Harvard University. For half a century, history of science as an academic specialty owed much to George Sarton’s visions and anxieties, especially as they were expressed in his marriage. Mabel Sarton sustained his enterprise and contributed to its form, which included parts of socialism, pacifism, aesthetics, and faith. Current themes present in George Sarton’s early work include the common endeavor of artists and scientists, the private nature of scientific innovation, and the history of science as a bridge between the cultures of the humanities and the natural sciences.

GERMAN BORN, JACQUES LOEB was both a biologist (nominated for the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1901) and political activist. Drawing on his correspondence, the authors highlight Loeb's organizational actions and political opinions during the years of 1906 to 1924, the year of his death. As a social activist and scientist, Loeb influenced, Rasmussen and Tilman say, "the scientific community, the politically sensitive public, and ultimately the underlying population against conservative and reactionary attitudes toward race, ethnicity, poverty, criminality, war and religion." In chapters on Loeb's research agenda, position on World War I, social activism, his influence on the economist Thorstein Veblen and finally on his philosophy and politics, the authors sketch a man who was hailed early in his career for his work on spontaneous generation of marine embryos and recognized later for his active challenge to social intolerance.

Babylonian and Assyrian early civilizations left a "vast corpus of records and scribes," preserved through the medium of cuneiform writing on clay tablets. Erica Reiner looks back on the last half-century and more of work on the Chicago Assyrian dictionary project at the Oriental Institute of Chicago, focusing particularly on the reformulation of the task that took place during her early years of participation in the 1950s and 1960s. This included intellectual clashes between eminent scholars such as Thorkild Jacobsen and Leo Oppenheim. Benno Landsberger, an unrivaled older magister of the field in the eyes of both Jacobsen and Oppenheim, in the end supported Oppenheim and helped to move the project forward. Oriental Institute director Robert McC. Adams "concurs warmly in the course that has finally made the CAD not only a reality of the kind Oppenheim envisioned but one of the great and enduring humanistic achievements of our time."

Interpretation of heavenly phenomena as signs of the future was a Mesopotamian tradition of great antiquity. The practice of Babylonian celestial divination, spanning a period from ca. 1800 B.C. to Hellenistic times, is known in the form of celestial omens portending the life of the king and stability of the state. Emerging for the first time in the fifth century B.C., horoscopes reflect the application of the idea and practice of celestial divination to the life of the individual. Whereas an omen focuses on a single astronomical phenomenon, the horoscope takes into account the positions of the moon, sun, and five naked-eye planets at the moment of a birth. As such, Babylonian horoscopes presuppose the concept of the ecliptic and a methodology for obtaining the positions of heavenly bodies when they are not observable. This is the first complete edition of the extant cuneiform horoscopes—with transcription and philological and astronomical commentary. It is the first study to offer a systematic description of the documents as a definable class of Babylonian astronomical/astrological texts. Publication of the Babylonian horoscopes fills a significant gap in our materials for the history of Western astrology as well as of ancient astronomy, and provides a rich source for further study of the transmission of astronomical science from ancient Babylonia to the Greeks.

The Southeastern area of the United States is one of the richest vertebrate fossil localities on the east coast of North America and was recognized as such by Louis Agassiz during his first visit to Charleston in 1847 when he saw the first collection of fossils accumulated by local planter Francis S. Holmes. Holmes was made curator of The Charleston Museum in 1850 and spent the following years writing books on paleontology and leading the way in developing the mining of phosphate in the Charleston area. Albert Sanders reports discoveries of vertebrate fossils near Charleston and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, and in Brunswick County, North Carolina, which have provided new records of 37 Pleistocene mammal taxa on the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

The excavation of an immense pit near the Santee River in South Carolina has produced the first Paleocene vertebrate fauna from the South Atlantic coast of the United States, as well as a rich flora that provides extensive knowledge of the paleoenviromental setting in which those animals flourished nearly 60 million years ago. The excavation penetrated the Late Paleocene Williamsburg Formation and yielded many specimens collected from the spoil piles, among which were the first Paleocene mammal remains from the east coast of North America. In this important volume, eight paleobiologists interpret the discoveries systematically and compare them with Paleocene floras and faunas from elsewhere in North America and around the globe. The authors include: Bruce Erickson (crocodilians and a snake); Robert E. Weems (bony fishes); Weems and Laurel Bybell (geological setting); Lucy Edwards (dinoflagellates); Robert C. Melchior (pollen, spores, fossil wood, and amber); Robert W. Purdy (sharks and rays); Howard Hutchison and Robert Weems (turtles); Robert Schoch (mammals); Glenn Sawyer (coprolites); and Erickson and Melchior (trace fossils). Editor Albert E. Sanders wrote the Introduction and the Summary and Conclusions for this work, which is easily one of the most significant contributions to our knowledge of early Tertiary times in this region.

The Tintype in America, 1856–1880 is the history of the tintype from its invention in Paris to the end of the wet-plate era. It included the early plate manufacturers Peter Neff (melainotype) and Victor M. Griswold (ferrotype); its process, patents, and presentations; and the society and industry that supported it.

Always suspicious of art, Americans embraced the tintype. They were comfortable with its artlessness and liked the come-as-you-are independence of the thing. It was so quick, so easy, so spontaneous. At the end of the day the stories were real, untouched by the manipulations of artist or photographer, and unencumbered by Romantic notions of moral and civic virtue.

Janice Shimmelman is Professor of Art History at Oakland University in Rochester, MI.

Seeking to enlarge an understanding of the nature of chemical science and explain how the concepts being taught in the classroom came to be, Robert Siegfried presents a simple, readable account of how in the eighteenth century chemical composition slowly abandoned the centuries-long tradition of metaphysical elements of earth, air, fire, and water. Through the work of such scientist as Lavoisier, Dalton, and Davy, chemical theory moved from metaphysical ELEMENTS to operationally functional ATOMS. The content of the book is based on chemical writings of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century chemists; references to recently published secondary works are intended for the benefit of readers who wish to enlarge their contextual perspectives on the development of early chemical thinking.

Sometime between 1028 and 1038, Ibn al-Haytham completed his monumental optical synthesis, Kitab al-Manazir ("Book of Optics"). By no later than 1200, and perhaps somewhat earlier, this treatise appeared in Latin under the title De aspectibus. In that form it was attributed to a certain "Alhacen." These differences in title and authorial designation are indicative of the profound differences between the two versions, Arabic and Latin, of the treatise. In many ways, in fact, they can be regarded not simply as different versions of the same work, but as different works in their own right. Accordingly, the Arab author, Ibn al-Haytham, and his Latin incarnation, Alhacen, represent two distinct, sometimes even conflicting, interpretive voices. And the same holds for their respective texts.

To complicate matters, "Alhacen" does not represent a single interpretive voice. There were at least two translators at work on the Latin text, one of them adhering faithfully to the Arabic original, the other content with distilling, even paraphrasing, the Arabic original. Consequently, the Latin text presents not one, but at least two faces to the reader. This critical edition represents fourteen years of work on Dr. Smith's part.

Awarded the 2001 J. F. Lewis Award.